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Wars and conflicts
How many wars there have been since 1926, how many people died and which states were involved. With open data and method.
Wars and conflicts since 1926
How many armed conflicts were there each year, who took part, and what did they cost? The figures come from two recognised datasets of peace and conflict research. We do not count ourselves. We show what the datasets record under their own rules, and name their limits.
What is counted
UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset, version 26.1 (Uppsala and Oslo): an armed conflict is a contested incompatibility over government or territory in which the use of armed force between two parties, at least one of them the government of a state, results in at least 25 battle-related deaths in a calendar year. From 1,000 such deaths in a year the dataset speaks of war. It covers 1946 to 2025.
Types: intrastate (government against armed groups), internationalised intrastate (the same, but other states fight with their own troops), interstate (state against state), extrasystemic (a state fights outside its territory for control of a territory, as in colonial wars).
Correlates of War (COW): a war is sustained combat between organised armed forces with at least 1,000 battle deaths among combatants within twelve months. A state is a war participant if it commits at least 1,000 troops or suffers 100 battle deaths. COW is the source for the years before 1946; Inter-State Wars version 4.0 runs to 2007, Intra-State Wars version 5.1 to 2014.
The two datasets count differently. Their figures are therefore shown separately and not joined into one line.
Armed conflicts per year, 1946 to 2025
According to UCDP/PRIO there were 65 armed conflicts in 2025, more than in any other year since 1946. 13 of them reached the war threshold of 1,000 deaths.
- intrastate
- internationalised intrastate
- interstate
- extrasystemic
Values as a table
| Year | intrastate | internationalised intrastate | interstate | extrasystemic | total | of which wars |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1946 | 8 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 17 | 7 |
| 1947 | 9 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 14 | 10 |
| 1948 | 12 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 20 | 13 |
| 1949 | 13 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 21 | 8 |
| 1950 | 11 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 18 | 8 |
| 1951 | 8 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 14 | 6 |
| 1952 | 7 | 0 | 2 | 5 | 14 | 5 |
| 1953 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 7 | 16 | 7 |
| 1954 | 8 | 0 | 1 | 6 | 15 | 4 |
| 1955 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 6 | 13 | 4 |
| 1956 | 9 | 0 | 2 | 6 | 17 | 6 |
| 1957 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 6 | 17 | 2 |
| 1958 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 18 | 6 |
| 1959 | 12 | 1 | 0 | 3 | 16 | 5 |
| 1960 | 11 | 3 | 0 | 1 | 15 | 4 |
| 1961 | 16 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 21 | 9 |
| 1962 | 13 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 20 | 7 |
| 1963 | 13 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 20 | 7 |
| 1964 | 14 | 4 | 3 | 4 | 25 | 7 |
| 1965 | 17 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 27 | 8 |
| 1966 | 19 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 28 | 7 |
| 1967 | 22 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 33 | 11 |
| 1968 | 20 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 26 | 7 |
| 1969 | 17 | 4 | 5 | 3 | 29 | 9 |
| 1970 | 16 | 5 | 2 | 3 | 26 | 8 |
| 1971 | 20 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 29 | 10 |
| 1972 | 17 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 26 | 6 |
| 1973 | 17 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 26 | 7 |
| 1974 | 20 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 28 | 6 |
| 1975 | 24 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 30 | 7 |
| 1976 | 29 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 32 | 8 |
| 1977 | 29 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 36 | 8 |
| 1978 | 29 | 5 | 4 | 0 | 38 | 14 |
| 1979 | 34 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 41 | 10 |
| 1980 | 30 | 8 | 3 | 0 | 41 | 9 |
| 1981 | 33 | 7 | 2 | 0 | 42 | 13 |
| 1982 | 37 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 44 | 15 |
| 1983 | 33 | 6 | 4 | 0 | 43 | 14 |
| 1984 | 34 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 42 | 15 |
| 1985 | 32 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 38 | 13 |
| 1986 | 36 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 44 | 12 |
| 1987 | 37 | 5 | 5 | 0 | 47 | 15 |
| 1988 | 32 | 4 | 3 | 0 | 39 | 16 |
| 1989 | 34 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 41 | 10 |
| 1990 | 44 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 49 | 14 |
| 1991 | 49 | 2 | 2 | 0 | 53 | 13 |
| 1992 | 45 | 5 | 1 | 0 | 51 | 14 |
| 1993 | 38 | 6 | 0 | 0 | 44 | 9 |
| 1994 | 47 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 50 | 10 |
| 1995 | 38 | 2 | 1 | 0 | 41 | 9 |
| 1996 | 36 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 41 | 10 |
| 1997 | 34 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 39 | 9 |
| 1998 | 32 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 40 | 12 |
| 1999 | 32 | 6 | 2 | 0 | 40 | 12 |
| 2000 | 34 | 4 | 2 | 0 | 40 | 12 |
| 2001 | 31 | 5 | 2 | 0 | 38 | 9 |
| 2002 | 29 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 33 | 7 |
| 2003 | 28 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 33 | 6 |
| 2004 | 29 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 7 |
| 2005 | 28 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 5 |
| 2006 | 28 | 5 | 0 | 0 | 33 | 6 |
| 2007 | 31 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 35 | 4 |
| 2008 | 31 | 7 | 1 | 0 | 39 | 5 |
| 2009 | 30 | 7 | 0 | 0 | 37 | 7 |
| 2010 | 23 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 31 | 4 |
| 2011 | 27 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 37 | 7 |
| 2012 | 23 | 9 | 1 | 0 | 33 | 6 |
| 2013 | 28 | 10 | 1 | 0 | 39 | 7 |
| 2014 | 28 | 17 | 1 | 0 | 46 | 13 |
| 2015 | 32 | 21 | 1 | 0 | 54 | 11 |
| 2016 | 34 | 18 | 2 | 0 | 54 | 12 |
| 2017 | 30 | 23 | 1 | 0 | 54 | 10 |
| 2018 | 31 | 19 | 2 | 0 | 52 | 6 |
| 2019 | 29 | 26 | 2 | 0 | 57 | 7 |
| 2020 | 27 | 27 | 3 | 0 | 57 | 8 |
| 2021 | 26 | 26 | 2 | 0 | 54 | 5 |
| 2022 | 31 | 22 | 3 | 0 | 56 | 8 |
| 2023 | 36 | 21 | 2 | 0 | 59 | 9 |
| 2024 | 36 | 19 | 4 | 0 | 59 | 11 |
| 2025 | 35 | 22 | 8 | 0 | 65 | 13 |
Wars per year according to Correlates of War, 1926 to 2007
COW counts only wars with at least 1,000 battle deaths. In 1992 there were 30 at the same time, the highest number in the period. In 1939 COW records four interstate wars, among them the Second World War.
- intrastate
- interstate
- extra-state
Values as a table
| Year | intrastate | interstate | extra-state |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1926 | 4 | 0 | 3 |
| 1927 | 3 | 0 | 2 |
| 1928 | 5 | 0 | 1 |
| 1929 | 7 | 1 | 1 |
| 1930 | 6 | 0 | 3 |
| 1931 | 3 | 1 | 3 |
| 1932 | 7 | 2 | 1 |
| 1933 | 4 | 2 | 0 |
| 1934 | 5 | 2 | 0 |
| 1935 | 1 | 2 | 0 |
| 1936 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
| 1937 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
| 1938 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
| 1939 | 2 | 4 | 1 |
| 1940 | 1 | 4 | 0 |
| 1941 | 1 | 3 | 0 |
| 1942 | 0 | 1 | 0 |
| 1943 | 1 | 1 | 0 |
| 1944 | 2 | 1 | 0 |
| 1945 | 6 | 1 | 1 |
| 1946 | 5 | 0 | 2 |
| 1947 | 7 | 1 | 2 |
| 1948 | 8 | 2 | 4 |
| 1949 | 6 | 2 | 2 |
| 1950 | 6 | 1 | 3 |
| 1951 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| 1952 | 4 | 1 | 4 |
| 1953 | 3 | 1 | 5 |
| 1954 | 2 | 1 | 6 |
| 1955 | 4 | 1 | 4 |
| 1956 | 5 | 2 | 4 |
| 1957 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
| 1958 | 7 | 2 | 2 |
| 1959 | 7 | 0 | 1 |
| 1960 | 7 | 0 | 1 |
| 1961 | 7 | 0 | 2 |
| 1962 | 8 | 1 | 2 |
| 1963 | 8 | 0 | 1 |
| 1964 | 8 | 0 | 2 |
| 1965 | 9 | 2 | 2 |
| 1966 | 7 | 1 | 2 |
| 1967 | 9 | 2 | 2 |
| 1968 | 10 | 2 | 2 |
| 1969 | 6 | 4 | 2 |
| 1970 | 9 | 4 | 2 |
| 1971 | 8 | 4 | 2 |
| 1972 | 7 | 2 | 2 |
| 1973 | 8 | 3 | 2 |
| 1974 | 7 | 2 | 2 |
| 1975 | 9 | 2 | 4 |
| 1976 | 12 | 1 | 3 |
| 1977 | 11 | 2 | 2 |
| 1978 | 17 | 3 | 2 |
| 1979 | 14 | 3 | 3 |
| 1980 | 10 | 1 | 4 |
| 1981 | 10 | 1 | 4 |
| 1982 | 13 | 3 | 4 |
| 1983 | 15 | 1 | 4 |
| 1984 | 15 | 1 | 3 |
| 1985 | 13 | 1 | 3 |
| 1986 | 15 | 2 | 3 |
| 1987 | 15 | 3 | 3 |
| 1988 | 15 | 1 | 3 |
| 1989 | 19 | 0 | 2 |
| 1990 | 20 | 1 | 0 |
| 1991 | 27 | 1 | 1 |
| 1992 | 28 | 1 | 1 |
| 1993 | 21 | 1 | 0 |
| 1994 | 21 | 1 | 0 |
| 1995 | 17 | 1 | 0 |
| 1996 | 15 | 0 | 0 |
| 1997 | 14 | 0 | 1 |
| 1998 | 16 | 1 | 0 |
| 1999 | 17 | 3 | 0 |
| 2000 | 14 | 1 | 1 |
| 2001 | 15 | 1 | 2 |
| 2002 | 12 | 0 | 1 |
| 2003 | 9 | 1 | 2 |
| 2004 | 7 | 0 | 1 |
| 2005 | 7 | 0 | 1 |
| 2006 | 7 | 0 | 1 |
| 2007 | 5 | 0 | 0 |
Deaths
Since 1989 UCDP has recorded deaths from organised violence in three forms. It counts people killed directly by violence, using the dataset’s best estimate; deaths from hunger, disease or destroyed supplies are not included. Highest value in the series: 1994 with 823,507 deaths, mainly from one-sided violence against civilians that UCDP locates in Rwanda, Burundi and the DR Congo; 1994 is the year of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. 2025: 244,579 deaths.
- fighting in conflicts involving a state
- fighting between non-state groups
- one-sided violence against civilians
Values as a table
| Year | fighting in conflicts involving a state | fighting between non-state groups | one-sided violence against civilians |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1989 | 55,667 | 4,170 | 8,108 |
| 1990 | 80,297 | 5,251 | 9,857 |
| 1991 | 70,355 | 3,860 | 9,746 |
| 1992 | 53,410 | 10,458 | 11,703 |
| 1993 | 44,954 | 14,722 | 14,109 |
| 1994 | 38,523 | 5,299 | 779,685 |
| 1995 | 36,755 | 4,469 | 21,085 |
| 1996 | 28,903 | 4,196 | 54,291 |
| 1997 | 40,389 | 4,306 | 21,204 |
| 1998 | 40,238 | 3,523 | 17,333 |
| 1999 | 81,444 | 6,087 | 14,601 |
| 2000 | 78,674 | 7,428 | 8,514 |
| 2001 | 23,623 | 5,126 | 8,927 |
| 2002 | 21,157 | 6,391 | 13,848 |
| 2003 | 23,265 | 3,564 | 13,552 |
| 2004 | 19,716 | 4,161 | 12,286 |
| 2005 | 12,437 | 2,192 | 5,816 |
| 2006 | 20,287 | 3,075 | 4,474 |
| 2007 | 19,381 | 4,208 | 5,014 |
| 2008 | 28,867 | 6,188 | 4,489 |
| 2009 | 36,006 | 9,435 | 6,113 |
| 2010 | 21,652 | 8,804 | 3,750 |
| 2011 | 25,636 | 9,363 | 6,926 |
| 2012 | 74,155 | 10,067 | 6,470 |
| 2013 | 93,495 | 9,603 | 11,679 |
| 2014 | 116,005 | 19,539 | 15,339 |
| 2015 | 104,479 | 15,809 | 10,883 |
| 2016 | 90,764 | 17,118 | 7,937 |
| 2017 | 72,137 | 31,051 | 9,349 |
| 2018 | 55,166 | 27,872 | 5,187 |
| 2019 | 52,676 | 19,032 | 5,536 |
| 2020 | 73,139 | 20,676 | 8,948 |
| 2021 | 199,816 | 21,908 | 12,030 |
| 2022 | 284,981 | 19,742 | 12,172 |
| 2023 | 138,917 | 19,142 | 11,341 |
| 2024 | 155,038 | 17,725 | 14,260 |
| 2025 | 153,643 | 14,483 | 76,453 |
Interstate wars 1926 to 1945 according to COW
Sum of the battle deaths of all participants according to COW. Civilian victims are not included in this figure.
| War (name in the dataset) | Years | Battle deaths | Participating states |
|---|---|---|---|
| Manchurian | 1929 | 3,200 | 2 |
| Second Sino-Japanese | 1931 to 1933 | 60,000 | 2 |
| Chaco | 1932 to 1935 | 92,661 | 2 |
| Saudi-Yemeni | 1934 | 2,100 | 2 |
| Conquest of Ethiopia | 1935 to 1936 | 20,000 | 2 |
| Third Sino-Japanese | 1937 to 1941 | 1,000,000 | 2 |
| Changkufeng | 1938 | 1,726 | 2 |
| Nomonhan | 1939 | 28,000 | 3 |
| World War II | 1939 to 1945 | 16,634,907 | 25 |
| Russo-Finnish | 1939 to 1940 | 151,798 | 2 |
| Franco-Thai | 1940 to 1941 | 1,400 | 2 |
Participation of states in interstate wars and conflicts
For each state the table gives the number of interstate wars it took part in according to COW since 1926 and the number of interstate conflicts it was involved in according to UCDP since 1946. It is in alphabetical order and is not a ranking.
- Participation says nothing about who attacked, who defended or who was in the right.
- Every coalition counts every participant: a state that joins a large alliance with few troops counts the same as the main party.
- COW ends in 2007. UCDP counts each conflict once, however long it lasts; primary and supporting parties are shown separately.
- States that no longer exist appear under their name at the time. Both datasets list the Soviet Union and Russia under the same code.
Open table with 107 states
| State | Wars according to COW, 1926 to 2007 | Conflicts according to UCDP, primary party, 1946 to 2025 | additionally as supporting party |
|---|---|---|---|
| Afghanistan | 1 | 3 | |
| Albania | 1 | ||
| Algeria | 1 | ||
| Angola | 1 | ||
| Argentina | 1 | 1 | 1 |
| Armenia | 1 | ||
| Australia | 5 | 1 | 4 |
| Azerbaijan | 1 | ||
| Bahrain | 2 | ||
| Bangladesh | 1 | ||
| Belgium | 2 | 2 | |
| Bolivia | 1 | ||
| Bosnia and Herzegovina | 1 | ||
| Brazil | 1 | ||
| Bulgaria | 1 | ||
| Burkina Faso | 1 | ||
| Cambodia | 3 | 2 | |
| Cameroon | 1 | ||
| Canada | 4 | 3 | |
| Chad | 1 | 2 | |
| China | 10 | 5 | 1 |
| Colombia | 1 | 1 | |
| Croatia | 1 | ||
| Cuba | 2 | 1 | |
| Cyprus | 1 | 1 | |
| Czechoslovakia | 1 | ||
| Democratic Republic of the Congo | 1 | ||
| Denmark | 1 | ||
| Djibouti | 1 | ||
| Ecuador | 1 | 1 | |
| Egypt | 6 | 4 | 1 |
| El Salvador | 1 | 1 | |
| Eritrea | 1 | 2 | |
| Ethiopia | 5 | 2 | 1 |
| Finland | 2 | ||
| France | 8 | 3 | 2 |
| Germany | 2 | ||
| Greece | 2 | 2 | |
| Grenada | 1 | ||
| Honduras | 1 | 2 | 1 |
| Hungary | 2 | 1 | |
| Hyderabad | 1 | ||
| India | 5 | 3 | |
| Indonesia | 2 | ||
| Iran | 1 | 2 | |
| Iraq | 5 | 4 | |
| Israel | 6 | 7 | |
| Italy | 4 | 1 | |
| Japan | 5 | ||
| Jordan | 3 | 2 | |
| Kuwait | 1 | 1 | |
| Kyrgyzstan | 1 | ||
| Laos | 1 | 1 | |
| Lebanon | 1 | 1 | |
| Libya | 2 | 1 | |
| Luxembourg | 1 | ||
| Malaysia | 1 | ||
| Mali | 1 | ||
| Mongolia | 2 | ||
| Morocco | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| Myanmar | 1 | ||
| Netherlands | 3 | 1 | 3 |
| New Zealand | 1 | 3 | |
| Nicaragua | 1 | ||
| Niger | 1 | ||
| Nigeria | 2 | ||
| North Korea | 1 | 1 | 2 |
| Norway | 1 | 2 | |
| Oman | 1 | 1 | |
| Pakistan | 4 | 2 | 1 |
| Panama | 1 | ||
| Paraguay | 1 | ||
| Peru | 1 | 1 | |
| Philippines | 2 | 2 | |
| Poland | 1 | ||
| Portugal | 1 | ||
| Qatar | 1 | 1 | |
| Romania | 1 | ||
| Saudi Arabia | 3 | 1 | |
| Senegal | 1 | ||
| Sierra Leone | 1 | ||
| Singapore | 1 | ||
| Somalia | 1 | 1 | |
| South Africa | 2 | 1 | |
| South Korea | 2 | 1 | 1 |
| South Sudan | 1 | ||
| South Vietnam | 2 | 1 | |
| South Yemen | 1 | 1 | |
| Soviet Union/Russia | 6 | 4 | 1 |
| Spain | 1 | 1 | |
| Sri Lanka | 1 | ||
| Sudan | 1 | ||
| Syria | 5 | 2 | 1 |
| Taiwan | 2 | 1 | |
| Tajikistan | 1 | ||
| Tanzania | 1 | 1 | |
| Thailand | 4 | 3 | 2 |
| Tunisia | 1 | ||
| Türkiye | 3 | 1 | 2 |
| Uganda | 1 | 1 | |
| Ukraine | 1 | ||
| United Arab Emirates | 1 | 1 | |
| United Kingdom | 8 | 7 | 3 |
| United States | 9 | 5 | 5 |
| Vietnam (North Vietnam) | 6 | 3 | |
| Yemen (North Yemen) | 1 | 3 | |
| Yugoslavia | 3 |
Further consequences
Displacement: at the end of 2025, according to UNHCR’s Global Trends report, 117.8 million people were forcibly displaced, 68.7 million of them within their own country and 41.6 million as refugees abroad. The number fell for the first time in ten years. Besides war, persecution, violence and human rights violations also cause displacement.
Economy: the Institute for Economics and Peace puts the economic impact of violence in 2025 at 21.8 trillion US dollars in purchasing power parity, 10.5 percent of world output or 2,657 dollars per person (Global Peace Index 2026). Besides conflict losses the calculation includes military spending and internal security; it follows the institute’s method.
Sanctions and blockades: a tool alongside or instead of war
Chapter VII of the Charter of the United Nations sets out two steps. Under Article 41 the Security Council may decide on measures not involving the use of armed force, including the complete or partial interruption of economic relations. Only if these are inadequate may it take military action under Article 42.
How often sanctions achieve their aim is disputed in research and depends on the definition. In Economic Sanctions Reconsidered (3rd edition, 2007) Hufbauer, Schott, Elliott and Oegg rate about one third of cases as at least partly successful (34 percent). Pape (1997) re-examined the cases of an earlier edition and accepted only 5 of 115 as successes. Morgan, Bapat and Kobayashi (2014) find 27 to 56 percent in the TIES dataset, depending on the definition.
Findings on humanitarian effects differ. For 98 countries in 1977 to 2012, Gutmann, Neuenkirch and Neumeier (2021) find that UN sanctions lower life expectancy considerably more than US sanctions: UN sanctions by about 1.2 to 1.4 years, US sanctions by 0.4 to 0.5 years (separate estimates, abstract checked on 3 November 2026). Rodríguez, Rendón and Weisbrot (2025) estimate about 564,000 deaths per year associated with unilateral sanctions in 2012 to 2021 (95 percent interval 368,000 to 761,000) and find no statistically significant effect for UN sanctions. The authors themselves name limits: observational data and possible unobserved influences. The study was supported by the Center for Economic and Policy Research.
Since Resolution 2664 of 9 December 2022 a general humanitarian exemption applies to all UN asset freezes; the US, the EU and other states have adopted their own exemptions.
These sections set out research findings and the legal framework. They do not judge any single measure or state.
This overview is non-partisan and does not rank states. Please report errors to info@aciel-martinez-poll.com.
Data for download: ucdp_konflikte_je_jahr.csv, cow_kriege_je_jahr.csv, ucdp_todesopfer_je_jahr.csv, cow_kriege_1926_1945.csv, beteiligung_zwischenstaatlich.csv
Sources (11), accessed 3 November 2026
- Davies, S., Pettersson, T. and Öberg, M. (2026): Organized violence 1989 to 2025, and violent political protests. Journal of Peace Research 63(4). Gleditsch, N. P. et al. (2002): Armed Conflict 1946 to 2001, A New Dataset. Journal of Peace Research 39(5), 615 to 637. Data: UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset 26.1, licence CC BY 4.0. https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/
- UCDP Battle-Related Deaths Dataset 26.1, UCDP Non-State Conflict Dataset 26.1, UCDP One-Sided Violence Dataset 26.1, licence CC BY 4.0. https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/
- Pettersson, T. (2026): UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset Codebook v 26.1 (definitions). https://ucdp.uu.se/downloads/ucdpprio/ucdp-prio-acd-261.pdf
- Sarkees, M. R. and Wayman, F. (2010): Resort to War, 1816 to 2007. Washington DC: CQ Press. Data: COW Inter-State War Data 4.0, Intra-State Wars 5.1, Extra-State War Data 4.0; use with citation request, no licence stated. https://correlatesofwar.org/data-sets/cow-war/
- UNHCR, Global Trends: Forced Displacement in 2025 (June 2026), as reported by Africanews, 12.6.2026. https://www.unhcr.org/global-trends
- Institute for Economics and Peace, Global Peace Index 2026 (June 2026), as reported by Qazinform, 16.6.2026. https://www.visionofhumanity.org/
- Charter of the United Nations, Chapter VII, Articles 41 and 42. https://www.un.org/en/about-us/un-charter/chapter-7
- Hufbauer, G. C., Schott, J. J., Elliott, K. A. and Oegg, B. (2007): Economic Sanctions Reconsidered, 3. ed., Peterson Institute; Pape, R. A. (1997): Why Economic Sanctions Do Not Work. International Security 22(2); Morgan, T. C., Bapat, N. and Kobayashi, Y. (2014): Threat and Imposition of Economic Sanctions 1945 to 2005, Conflict Management and Peace Science 31(5); figures as summarised in Leng, Economic Statecraft, Chapter 3. https://bookdown.org/zengyuleng/economicstatecraft/sanctions-effectiveness.html
- Gutmann, J., Neuenkirch, M. and Neumeier, F. (2021): Sanctioned to Death? The Impact of Economic Sanctions on Life Expectancy and its Gender Gap. Journal of Development Studies 57(1), 139 to 162; working paper version: CESifo Working Paper 8033. https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:taf:jdevst:v:57:y:2021:i:1:p:139-162
- Rodríguez, F., Rendón, S. and Weisbrot, M. (2025): Effects of international sanctions on age-specific mortality, a cross-national panel data analysis. The Lancet Global Health 13(8), e1358 to e1366, DOI 10.1016/S2214-109X(25)00189-5, CC BY 4.0. https://cepr.net/publications/effects-of-international-sanctions-on-age-specific-mortality/
- UN Security Council, Resolution 2664 (2022) of 9.12.2022. https://docs.un.org/en/S/RES/2664(2022)